Presidential primaries are contests held by state political parties to determine the composition of state delegations to the national nominating conventions. State election laws establish the rules for primaries: in closed primaries only voters registered in the state party may vote; in open primaries independents may also vote; in crossover primaries voters from any party as well as independents may participate. Turnouts in primaries are low. In 1905 Governor Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin won passage of the first state law creating a delegateselection primary in time for the 1908 conventions. That Wholesale NFL Jerseys same year Oregon adopted cheap nfl jerseys a "first ballot" primary that bound the state delegation to vote for the winner of the primary on the first convention ballot. Sometimes this could lead to confusing results. In Massachusetts, for instance, the state's voters selected a slate of Theodore Roosevelt supporters to go to the convention but expressed their "preference" for William Howard Taft. But the pendulum swung in the other direction: in the 1920s, because of high costs and low voter participation, eight states dropped primaries and returned to the caucus system. The list includes Woodrow Wilson and William Howard Taft in 1912; Warren Harding in 1920; Herbert Hoover in 1932; Thomas Dewey in 1948; Dwight Eisenhower in 1952; and Hubert Humphrey in 1968. Conversely, winning primaries did not ensure a contender of winning the Presidential nomination. In 1912 Theodore Roosevelt won every primary but was defeated for the Republican nomination by incumbent President William Howard Taft, primarily because Taft controlled patronage vital to state parties. In 1960 John F. Kennedy won primaries in Wisconsin and West Virginia, demonstrating that a Catholic could do well with Protestant voters. That year, Hubert Humphrey won the Democratic nomination without having entered a single Democratic primary. As a result of its recommendations, six more states adopted the primary system by 1972, and another eight by 1976. There were 35 Democratic Presidential primaries by 1980 and 39 by 2000. Even more significant, party rules require that the preferences of the voters be translated directly into election of delegates. Primary winners also get momentum; they receive more campaign contributions and favorable media exposure, and they rise in the public opinion polls. The early primaries winnow the field down to two or three serious contenders. Then a regional grouping (such as Super Tuesday in the South, on which day six or more states hold primaries) or primaries in large states such as New York may propel one of the contenders far to the front. Since 1972, any frontrunner who has emerged from the primary season with more than 41 percent of the delegates has been nominated. James W. Davis, "Presidential Primaries: Road to the White House" (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1980). Austin Ranney, "Curing the Mischiefs of Faction: Party Reform in America" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975). Byron E. Shafer, "Quiet Revolution: The Struggle for the Democratic Party and the Shaping of PostReform Politics" (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1983)


For the most recent presidential primaries, see Democratic Party presidential primaries, 2012 and Republican Party presidential primaries, 2012. state and territory is part of the nominating process of United States presidential elections. This process was never included in the United States Constitution, and thus was created over time by the political parties. Some states only hold primary elections, some only hold caucuses, and others use a combination of both. These primaries and caucuses are staggered between January and June before the general election in November. The primary elections are run by state and local governments, while caucuses are private events that are directly run by the political parties themselves. A state's primary election or caucus usually is an indirect election: instead of voters directly selecting a particular person running for President, it determines how many delegates each party's national convention will receive from their respective state. These delegates then in turn select their party's presidential nominee.


Each party determines how many delegates are allocated to each state. Along with those delegates chosen during the primaries and caucuses, state delegations to both the Democratic and Republican conventions also include "unpledged" delegates, usually current and former elected officeholders and party leaders, who can vote for whomever they want.


This system of presidential primaries and caucuses is somewhat controversial because of its staggered nature. The major advantage is that candidates can concentrate their resources in each area of the country one at a time instead of campaigning in every state simultaneously. However, those states which traditionally hold their primaries and caucuses in the latter half of the primary season are normally at a tremendous disadvantage because the races are usually over by then. Each of these conventions is attended by a number of delegates selected in accordance with the given party's bylaws.


Both parties operate with two types of delegates: pledged and unpledged. The group of unpledged delegates, also known as superdelegates, generally comprising current and former elected officeholders and party leaders, are free to vote for any candidate they wish at the convention. The group of pledged delegates, comprising delegates representing the party committee of each state, are expected to vote in accordance with the rules of their state party.


Depending on state law and state party rules, when voters cast ballots for a candidate in a presidential caucus or primary, they may be voting to actually award delegates bound to vote for a particular candidate at the state or national convention, or they may simply be expressing an opinion that the state party is not bound to follow in selecting delegates to the national convention.


In recent elections, the eventual nominees were known well before the actual conventions took place. The last time a major party's nominee was not clear before the convention was in 1976, when incumbent president Gerald Ford narrowly defeated Ronald Reagan.


Types of primaries and caucuses


Franchise in a primary or caucus is governed by rules established by the state party, although the states may impose other regulations.


While most states hold primary elections, a handful of states hold caucuses. Instead of going to a polling place, voters attend local private events run by the political parties, and cast their selections there. The advantage of caucuses is that the state party runs the process directly instead of having the state and local governments run them. The disadvantage is that most election laws do not normally apply to caucuses.[1]


Nearly all states have a binding primary or caucus, in which the results of the election legally bind some or all of the delegates to vote for a particular candidate at the national convention, for a certain number of ballots or until the candidate releases the delegates. Some binding primaries are winnertakeall contests, in which all of a state's delegates are required to vote for the same candidate. In a proportional vote, a state's delegation is allocated in proportion to the candidates' percent of the popular vote. In many of those states that have proportional vote primaries, a candidate must meet a certain threshold in the popular vote to be given delegates.


A handful of states practice nonbinding primaries or caucuses, which may select candidates to a state convention, which then in turn selects delegates to the national convention. A couple of states like Iowa have an additional step in their nonbinding primaries or caucuses where voters instead elect delegates to county conventions. The county conventions then in turn elect delegates to the state conventions, and so on.


In many states, only voters registered with a party may vote in that party's primary, known as a closed primary. In some states, a semiclosed primary is practiced, in which voters unaffiliated with a party (independents) may choose a party primary in which to vote. In an open primary, any voter may vote in any party's primary. In all of these systems, a voter may participate in only one primary; that is, a voter who casts a vote for a candidate standing for the Republican nomination for president cannot cast a vote for a candidate standing for the Democratic nomination, or vice versa. Supreme Court in the 2000 case of California Democratic Party v. Jones as violating the freedom of assembly guaranteed by the First Amendment.[2]


Delegate selection rules


Both the Democratic Party and the Republican Party usually modify their delegate selection rules between presidential elections, including how delegates are allocated to each state and territory.


Under the 2008 Democratic Party selection rules, adopted in 2006, delegates are selected under proportional representation, which requires a candidate have a minimum of 15% of a state's popular vote to receive delegates. In addition, the Democratic Party may reject any candidate under their bylaws. is based on two main factors: (1) the proportion of votes each state gave to the Democratic candidate in the last three presidential elections, and (2) the number of electoral votes each state has in the United States Electoral College. States who schedule their primary or caucus later in the primary season may also get additional bonus delegates.[4]


The Republican Party's 2008 cheap nfl jerseys rules left more discretion to the states in choosing a method of allocating delegates. Also in 2012, three delegates are allocated for each congressional district. Congress, among other factors.[6]


Each party's bylaws also specify which current and former elected officeholders and party leaders qualify as unpledged delegates.


For 2012, both the Republicans and the Democrats moved their Florida primary to January 31, which was an earlier date than past election cycles. In response, other states also changed their primary election dates for 2012, in order to claim a greater influence, creating a cascade of changes in other states. This follows what happened in 2008 when Nevada moved its caucuses to January, causing other states to also move its primaries to earlier dates.